Half-vowels

• A dot in any letter other than a dagesh lene is a dagesh forte
• A BeGaT KePaT letter is a dagesh lene when not preceded by a vowel sound [Thus, new syllables after long vowel have no dagesh]
• A BeGaT KePaT letter is a dagesh forte when preceded by a vowel sound (full or half)

1. Mark the tone syllable (accented syllable) - if not the last syllable. Mûnaḥ ( ֣ ).
2. Used in synagogue chanting
3. Punctuation marks:
1. Disjunctive accents. There are two major disjunctive accents that are placed on accented syllable. Words with these are said to be ‘in pause’. The pause may lengthen the vowels.
1. ʾatnāḥ ( ֑  ) marks the end of the first ‘half’ of the verse
2. sillûq ( ֽ ) marks the end of sentence before the sôp̱ pāssûq ( ׃ )
2. Conjunctive accents.

Meteg is a secondary accent. It looks like a sillûq ( ֽ ), but is found on any word.

1. Meteg marks long vowels that need proper stressing.
2. They mark short vowels before compound shewas.
3. They can stand (with long or short vowels) before vocal shewas.
4. They can be used with unchangeable long vowels before a maqqēp̄.

Meteg's occasionally are placed to the right of the vowel.

Weak Letters

Maqqîq

Syllables

1. Instead (for ר ע א) the preceding vowel is lengthened.
1. a class ַ → ָ
2. e/i class ִ → ֵ
3. o/u class ֻ → ֹ
2. For ה and ח a dagesh forte is assumed, but not shown.

• Definitive article on abstract nouns can be ignored. 'the gold' = gold.
• Found on physical objects and people as well.
• Definitive article can be vocative. [O King

• בְּ - in, by, with...
• כְּ - as, like, according to...
• לְ - to, for, at...

1. Before nouns with definite article, normally appears in full and with maqqef. מִן־הָאָ֣רֶץ
2. Before indefinite nouns without leading gutturals becomes ּ מִ. e.g., מִמֶּ֣לֶך.
1. Except before יְ becomes מִי
3. Before indefinite nouns with leading gutturals becomes מֵ, e.g., מֵאִישׁ
4. מִן can be used for comparison (X than Y)

1. וְ before consonants with full vowel (except labials פּ, מ, בּ [and ו]), e.g, וְהָאָ֣רֶץ
2. וּ before פּ, מ, בּ and simple shewa, e.g., וּבְרִית
1. Except before יְ, yod replaced by וִי, so יְהִי becomes וִיהִי
2. [BGDKPT letters drop dagesh after וּ]
3. Before compound shewa, takes short vowel and often meteg. וֶֽאֱמֶת
4. וָ before monosyllables or accented syllables. Often reflects close connection and same class. [So, learn stress on words]

Divine names

1. Female persons or (female) animals
2. Nouns ending in ה ָ
1. Several nouns are feminised by adding this suffix (מַלְכָה) [Open syllables (often?) reduce at start of words]
3. Nouns ending in ת
4. Nouns that refer to parts of the body that exist in pairs are usually feminine

• Often end ים ִ

• A few end וֹת [such as אָבוֹת]

Feminine plural nouns

• Most end וֹת (this replaces ה ָ )

• A few end ים ִ [such as נָשִׁים]

Masculine and feminine plurals

• End with ים ִ and וֹת

Dual Nouns

1. End with יִם ַ֣
2. [fp תַ֣יִם ָ ]

• Mas. plural adjectives end ים ִ
• Feminine s. adjectives end ה ָ
• Fem. plural adjectives end וֹת

• With unchangeable long vowels
• Remain the same טוֹבִים
• Which end in non-gutturals and have short vowels
• Retain short vowel, but double final consonant חַיִּים
• Which end in gutturals and have short vowels (see L.V)
• Lengthen their short vowel מָרִים

• If initial consonant is non-guttural
• Reduce to vocal shewa זְקֵנִים
• If initial consonant is guttural (L.V)
• Reduce to compound shewa חֲזָקִים
• קָטֹן is irregular. ḥôlem→ pataḥ and nûn doubled. קְטַנִּים
• Bisyllabic words ending ה ֶ drop their endings יָפִים

• Usually stands after their noun it describes, unless to emphasise.
• Must agree in gender, number and definiteness

• Usually stands before the noun it completes. Add ‘to be’ when translating.
• Will agree with subject noun in gender and number, but won’t take the article.
• Sometimes two predicative nouns used to describe one noun.

That/those

Demonstrative pronouns used attributively

Like adjectives, they may be used attributively and agree in gender, number and definiteness. Usually stands after adjectives (if used). [always definite]

• Masculine nouns ְ ָ ִים, e.g. בְּגָדִים - garments

• Feminine nouns ְ ָ וֹת (usually), e.g. דְּלָתוֹת - doors

Dual endings

Pronominal suffixes for prepositions

For inseparable prepositions בְּ and לְ

כְּ is irregular (כָּמ֣וֹנִי 1cs, כָּמ֣וֹךָ 2ms, כָּמוֹךְ2fs , כָּמ֣וֹהוּ3ms , כָּמ֣וֹהָ3fs , כָּמ֣וֹנוּ1cp, כָּכֶם2mp , כָּכֶן2fp , כָּהֶם3mp , כָּהֶן3fp )

• אֵת - with (not direct object). This like some prepositions takes a dagesh forte (אִתּוֹ 3ms…)
• לְבַד - alone, by oneself, by itself (lit. in separation) (לְבַדִּי 1cs…)
• עִם - with ( עִמִּי, also עִמָּדִי 1cs…)

מִן – irregular

• מִן - from, away from, more than. Duplicates מִן־מִן־נִי, but not always (מִמֶּ֣נִּי 1cs, מִמְּךָ 2ms ... מִמֶּ֣נּוּ 3ms/1cp... מִכֶּם 2mp, מֵהֶם 3mp)

Prepositions with the same pronominal suffixes as plural nouns

• לִפְנֵי becomes לְפָנַי 1cs (before me, lit. to the face of)…
• Opening vowel volatised
• אֶל and עַל (and אַחֲרֵי)
• Long vowel in first syllable
• Volatised before heavy suffix אֲלֵיכֶם (2/3p)
• אֶל becomes אֵלַי
• עַל becomes עָלָין

Particles – Slightly irregular

• אֵת - sign of direct object.
• No dagesh (c.f. אֵת – with). אֹתוֹ (his)
• no הֶ in 3p אֹתָם
• 2p volatises אֶתְכֶם
• הִנֵּה ,הֵן - Behold
• הִנֶּ֣נִּי or הִנְנִי (1cs);הִנְּךָ (2ms)

Plural nouns

Vocalic suffixes (those that begin with a vowel) draw accents to themselves, unless preceded by unchangeably long vowel. Volatises second vowel, and meteg added to first (as open long vowel before v.shewa).

Silent shewas added before consonantal suffixes. תֶּם and תֶּן suffixes pull open long accents to themselves, but other suffixes aren't accented, so word is accented with meteg on the second syllable.

[Ta-ti-nu (2ms, 1cs, 1cp) make second vowel accented.]

The Meaning of the Perfect

• A simple action completed in the past (aorist)
• Past perfect. An action completed before a point of reference in the past. (Pluperfect)
• In the present tense, as a verb of perception, attitude, disposition, or mental or physical state of being.
• If prefixed with waw conjunction, usually indicates future tense.

Agrees with person, gender and number.

Can be joined with subject pronouns for emphasis. 'She gave to me from the tree'

Word order in verbal sentences

1. הֲ Before full vowel, non-guttural
2. הַ Before full vowel, guttural
1. Except, הֶ Before qames or qames-hatuf with guttural
3. הַ Before vocal shewa

אִם can introduce a question, and supposes a negative response. אִם־לֹא implies certainly (handbook, p105)

Open questions

1. מַה־ Before non-gutturals
2. מָה or מָה־ (occ מַה) before ר, [ה?], א
3. מֶה or מֶה־ [before guttural with qamas != ] before ח or ע [or הָ]

Interrogative adverbs

Numerals

• Unit placed before modified-ten: עָשָׁר Mas, עֶשְׂרֵה Fem
• אַחַר עָשָׁר or feminine אַחַת עֶשְׂרֵה - 11.
• Usually accompanying nouns are in plural form
• Except אִישׁ, יוֹם, שָׁנָה, נֶ֣פֶשׁ

• He ruled
• He was ruled
• He ruled (with force)
• He was ruled (with force)
• He ruled himself
• He caused to rule
• He was caused to rule

Some stative verbs have patah, not holem as stem vowel in infinitive (שְׁכַב – to lie down).

[2fp suffix can sometimes look like 3mp ?]

The meaning of the imperfect

Cohortative, involves first person imperfects. Sometimes lengthened by ה ָ . Used to express the speaker's desire, intention, self-encouragement, or determination to perform a certain act.

Vocab

• Sometimes describes a simple action in future time
• Sometimes frequentative: repeated, habitual, or customary action
• Sometimes, actions contingent upon other elements. Jussive and cohortative.

• Sometimes describes a simple action in future time
• Often frequentative: repeated, habitual, or customary action
• May express actions contingent upon other elements. Jussive and cohortative.
• [Sometimes the second root doesn't get dagesh forte.
• Waw consecutive doesn't double in yod]

• An action that is repeated, customary or habitual
• Contingent upon other factors, including jussive and cohortatives.

• Sometimes simple action in future time
• Often used to express repeated, habitual or customary actions

Pronominal suffixes with perfects

כֶם, כֶן, הֶם attract accents.

Second root consonants have vocal shewa restored and lengthened (unless closed or unchangeably long). Initial opened vowel volatised due to two syllable distance from accent.

That end in consonants

Changes before perfect pronominal suffixes

• 3fs verbs changed ה ָ → ת ַ
• 2fs verbs changed תְּ → תִּי
• 2m/fp verbs changed תֶּם and תֶּן → תּוּ
• [2ms ending תָּ becomes תַּ before נִי]
• [2ms ending תָּ sometimes before 3ms suffix הוּ syncopates to תּוֹ]

Pronominal suffixes with imperfects

That end in consonants

1. Without prefixes or suffixes as in English.
2. Often follows a preposition (see L6)
1. בְּ temporal (when) or clausal (why) clause
2. כְּ temporal (when, as, just as, as soon as) clause
3. לְ introduces a purpose, result or temporal clause. (Most common preposition).
1. Note, לֵאמֹר marks direct discourse similar to quotation mark.
4. מִן denotes idea of withholding, restraining or refusing. Or comparative.
3. With a pronominal suffix. Suffix may be subject or object. [Qal vocalisation פְּקֹד becomes פָּקְד]
4. לְבִלְתִּי negates infinitive, ‘so as not’, ‘in order not’

1. Sometimes gerundial (-ing)
1. אָכֹל בָּשָׂר וְשׁתוֹת יָ֣יִן – eating flesh and drinking wine (Is 22.13)
2. Common. If before its cognate verb: Strengthen, reinforce or intensify verb. (Indeed, surely)
1. פָּקֹד יִפְקֹד – surely visit (Gen 50.24)
3. Common. If after its cognate verb: emphasises the duration or continuation of the verbal idea.
1. שִׁמְעוּ שָׁמוֹעַ – keep on hearing (Is 6.9)
4. Sometimes used as a substitute for a finite verb. (Such as after an imperative)
1. זָכוֹר - remember Ex 20.8
5. [If unclear, often follows preceding verb
1. If Imperative + Inf. Abs. > Inf Abs functions as imperative
2. If Inf Cons. + Inf. Abs > Inf Abs functions as Inf Cons.
3. Is 7.15]

קַל – Active

קַל – Passive

נִפְעַל

פִּעֵל

פֻּעַל

הִתְפַּעֵל

הִפְעִיל

הָפְעַל

• Prefix is o or u class

Imperfect + Perfect

1. Summary
1. Same as Strong verbs
1. Pi‛el, Pu‛al and Hitpa‛el
2. Always different
1. Hif‛il and Hof‛al
3. Sometimes different
1. Qal and Nif‛al
2. Changes
1. Nif‛al initial guttural cannot be doubled, so:
1. Vowel lengthens and meteg added
1. Nif‛al (Imperfect, Imperative and Inf. Con.)
1. יִמָּשֵׁל (Strong), but יֵֽעָמֵד (Pe Guttural)
2. Gutturals prefer compound shewas.
1. Initial shewa after Pe Guttural without prefix becomes ḥāṭēp̄-pataḥ.
1. Qal (2m/fp Perfect, Imperative and Inf. Con.)
2. Silent shewas under Pe Guttural closing initial syllable become compound, and initial vowel clones and adds meteg. So:
1. ֲ ֽ ַ in
1. Qal (Imperfect, except 1cs and stative: ֱ ֽ ֶ )
2. Nif‛al (Inf. Abs.)
3. Hif‛il (all except Perfect).
2. ֱ ֽ ֶ in
1. Qal (Imperfect 1cs and stative)
2. Nif‛al (Perfect and Participle)
3. Hif‛il (Perfect)
3. ֳ ֽ ָ in
1. Hof‛al
3. When compound is followed by full shewa, compound expands to full vowel.
1. Qal and Hof‛al (Imperfect 2fs, 2/3mp) תַּֽעַמְדִי
2. Nif‛al and Hof‛al (Perfect 3fs, 3cp)

Pe Alef/Lamed He verbs [Ross]

• A word with a short vowel in accented syllable will be lengthened when in pause.
• אֶ֣רֶץ → אָ֣רֶץ (and all segolates)

• Gutturals cannot be doubled (בָּרַךְ)
• א ,ר (sometimes ע) have preceding vowel lengthened
• ה ,ח, often ע doubled by implication
• Gutturals generally take ‘a’ class vowels
• Qal Imperfect and Imperative (patah not holem)
• Piel Perfect 3ms sometimes takes patah not sere
• Guttural generally take compound shewas
• Does not apply to ר
• Perfect 3fs, 3cp
• Imperfect 2fs, 2/3mp
• Imperative fs, mp

Ayin Guttural/Lamed He verbs [Ross]

• Includes regular, stative and doubly weak verbs
• Regular
• בָּרָא
• מָצָא
• קָרָא
• רָפָא
• Stative
• יָרֵא
• מָלֵא
• צָמֵא
• שָׂנֵא
• טָמֵא
• Double weak
• חָבָא
• חָטָא
• יָצָא
• נָבָא
• נָשָׂא
• א becomes quiescent at end of syllable, so open vowels lengthened beforehand.
• BeGaD KePaT letters lose dagesh lene after א
• Stem vowel before consonantal afformatives (Perfect)
• Qamas in Qal (בָּרָ֫אתִי)
• Sere otherwise (נִבְרֵ֫אתִי)
• Stem vowel before quiesent א in Qal Imperfect/Imperative
• Except fp
• holem → qamas
• fp
• holem → segol
• Hofal preformative vowel is quibbus
• Some fs participles are slightly different

• Without afformative, very uniform
• ה ָ perfect
• ה ֶ imperfect and participle
• Except Qal passive וּי
• ה ֵ imperatives
• וֹת infinitive constructs
• ה ֹ infinitive absolutes
• Except ה ֵ hifil or hofal (sometimes piel)
• Occasionally he drops out רָאוֹ
• With afformatives
• Vocalic afformatives
• Perfect 3f final-he becomes ת
• Other forms drop ה
• Consonantal afformatives
• ה becomes י
• Active י ִ
• Passive י ֵ
• Imperfect and Imperative
• י ֶ
• [True of pronominal suffixes ??? ]

(There’s evidence final root was originally י)

• Generally follow the pattern of both types of verbs
• עָשָׂה עָנָה
• When ה is apocopated in Hiphil, compound raised to patah (jussive)

• A nun supported with silent shewa is assimilated into following consonant as follows:
• Always
• Hiphil and Hophal.
• Perfect and Participles
• Niphal
• Imperfect (and waw-con)
• Qal
• Hofal changes vowel o→u
• Except
• Before Ayin Gutturals, nun remains (נָחַל)
• Except נָחַם

Groups

• Most pe nun verbs
• Qal Imperfect stem vowel is holem (יִפֹּל)
• PN+LG (inc. לָקַח) verbs and some regular verbs (נָגַשׁ, נָתַךְ)
• Qal Imperfect stem vowel is patah (יִגַּשׁ)
• Qal Imperative also drops initial נ (גַּשׁ)
• נָתַן
• Qal Imperfect stem vowel is sere Qal imperative drops initial נ
• PN+LA
• Qal Imperfect stem vowel is qamas
• Qal imperative drops initial נ
• All above without holem as stem vowel
• Inf. cons. Drops נ, adds ת to form segolate
• לְ prefix becomes לָ since it’s before stressed syllable
• final נ assimilated in נָתַן becomes תֵּת

• Lexicons list form of Qal Inf Cont. since in Qal Perfect middle vowel usually drops out.
• וּ
• כּוּן ; שׁוּב ; קוּם
• Stative מוּת
• וֹ
• בּוֹא (Doubly weak)
• Stative בּוֹשׁ (preformative vowel in Imp is sere)
• ִי
• בִּין
• Either וּ or ִי
• שִׂים שוּם
• Exceptions גָּוַע ,צוה ,קָוָה ,הָיָה , חָיָה
• Perfect
• Most verbs follow pattern of קוּם (except stative and וֹ verbs)
• Qal-Perf-3fs accent differs to Qal-part-act-fs
• Vocalic suffixes don’t draw accents, except in hofal
• Other inflections
• Middle waw is וּ // ִי in most inflections, but וֹ in Inf Abs.
• Except middle וֹ verbs
• Preformative vowel is usually long in open syllables
• Qamas
• Qal imperfect
• Nifal Perfect and Participle
• Hifil Imperfect; Imperative; Inf Con/Abs
• Sere
• Hifil Perfect and Participle
• Suruq
• Hofal
• Linking consonants added before נָה endings in Qal imperfect and all consonantal suffixes in Nifal and Hifil perfects
• Qal imperfect
• ֶי
• Nifal and Hifil perfects
• וֹ
• These draw accents to themselves, especially before Perfect 2p תֶּם תֶּן
• Volatises open syllables (e.g. Perfect; Qal-Imp-3fp)
• ִי verbs
• Qal appears the same as Hifil in Imperfect
• When final root consonant = suffix consonant drop combine by doubling
• מוּת – 2(mfsp) and 1cs (מַָ֫תִּי)
• N.b.מַ֫תְתָּ (2ms) becomes מַ֫תָּה
• Qal imperative fp differs
• בֹּשְׁנָה
• Intensive and reflexive stems
• Polel, Polal and Hitpolel
• Repeat final consonant and supply vowel.
• כּוּן בִּין sere; שׁוּב patah

• Verbs beginning י or ו. Root forms look similar, differentiated only in other stems (esp. Nifal and Hifil)
• יָבֵשׁ (pe-waw); יָטַב (pe-yod)
• Pe waw verbs
• Some retains yod in imperfect
• יָבֵשׁ ; יָגַע ; יָעַץ ; יָקַץ ; יָרֵא ; יָרָשׁ ; יָשֵׁן
• Imperfect. Have patah as stem vowel
• יָבֵשׁ ; יָגַע
• Forms Hiriq-yod in Qal Imperfect
• Imperative. Some retain yod, others drop like pe nun verbs
• יָבֵשׁ (retains); יָרַשׁ (drops)
• Infinitive Construct. Some retain yod, others drop and add ת forming segolate
• יָבֵשׁ (retains יְבֹשׁ); יָרַשׁ (drops רֶ֫שֶׁת)
• Some drop initial yod in imperfect
• יָדַע ;יָלַד ;יָסַף ; יָצָא ;יָרַד ; יָשַׁב
• Also הָלַךְ included here
• Inf cons adds ת to form segolate
• Stem vowels is sere, except patah before guttural
• Some contain sibilant
• יָצַק ;יָצַת ; יָצַג
• Formed like pe-nun verbs
• Irregular verbs יָכֹל
• Imperfetc. Retains וּ
• Nifal
• Waw acts as consonant (יִוָּבֵשׁ Imp 3ms)
• Dipthong in Perfect (נוֹבַשׁ Per 3ms) and Participle
• Piel, Pual, Hitpael
• Usually has yod in intensive stems
• Sometimes waw in hitpael.
• Hifal and Hofal
• Retains holem/sureq in stems
• Pe yod verbs
• יָטַב; יָלַל ; יָמַן ; יָנַק ; יָקַץ ; יָשַׁר
• Retains yod in all forms.
• Hiriq-yod (Qal) or sere-yod (Hifil)
• These don’t occur in Nifal and Hofal. Only יָשַׁר occurs in Piel and Pual.

Nouns

• Learn irregular nouns: הָ/הָר
• Abstract nouns are often feminine, land, belief Gen 15.6-7.
• Use context to identify collective nouns: sheep, birds (Gen 15.11)

Translation

• לֵאמֹר translate as saying, although today often translated opening quotation (, “)
• וַיֹּאמַר at start of direct speech (semi-pausal)
• Normally דִּבֵּר + אֶל־ not לְ +. However אָמַר + לְ. “Spoke/said to” (usually)
• Likewise, קָרָא + אֶל־ or + לְ, not often אֶת־
• אֶל (verb of direction, motion) for direction not ְל
• Directive-he takes אֶל not ְל
• Dative verbs
• give to - נתן + לְ
• prayed to – לְ ; e.g, פָּלַל לַיהוה [often, not always]
• [to do, Week 3.E.4]
• Don't write pronominal suffix with verbs, instead use direct object. בֵּרַךְ אתִי
• With
• בְּ with an instrument
• עִם ,אֶת with a person
• אֶת dropped out of use in later Biblical Hebrew, otherwise they are nearly synonymous.
• [Check, perhaps, עִם is often used for familial relations between person. Often it overlaps with אֵת]
• On, upon
• Usually עַל not בְּ
• Except use בְּ for:
• ‘on that day’
• on the top/head of the mountain – בָּהָר
• מִן – use ּ מִ unless before definite article
• [Gen 22.16, כִּ֗י with disjunctive accent functions differently.]
• גַם־הִ֛וא She also.
• הֲ plus אֵין used in nominal sentences, not לֹא for Do you not...
• Short words come first; e.g., אֲנִי בְצָרָה not בְצָרָה אֲנִי
• Waw consecutive
• often doesn’t double before yod in Piel (and some other yods?). Similar to definite article L5?
• Some sibilants don’t double, see נָשָׂא
• The more frequently a word is used, the more frequently it is prone to irregularities!
• Translation
• Picking between Qal and Hitpael.
• For קָבַץ Hithpael is intransitive, so use hitpael for gather together, not Qal.
• Comparison
• Smallest in Israel = H+Adj B+Noun, or Adj-Con+Noun
• (in) where אֲשֶׁר שָׁם
• (in) which אֲשֶׁר בּוֹ
• Verbs of knowing have stative quality. Often translated in the present
• When
• בְּ / כְּ + Inf con. (hard, don’t use)
• כִּי + Perfect
• כַּאֲשֶׁר + Perfect
• Watch out
• Use feminine forms on verbs and adjectives with feminine nouns
• Passive participles ‘you [are] blessed’ אַתְּ בְּרוּכָה
• Blessed to the LORD לְ is dative not אֶל־
• you will surely keep -> use 2m not 3m

Sequence

• Nouns of time often come before verb, Gen 1.1, בְּרֵשִׁית בָּרָ֣א
• Waw consecutive used in narrating historic stories, consecutively we did x and then y and then z.
• Use perfect for background information and if not first position in a clause.
• had made = pluperfect = background information = event has happened before the time of narrative. So use perfect, not imperfect. Also, the position in clauses. First clauses waw-imperfect, second is then perfect, if it comes second in clause (e.g. after כִּי)
• Clauses
• Waw-consecutive only comes in first position in clause, use perfect after [כִּי (that), כַּאֲשֶׁר after, ...]
• לֹא + [im?]perfect (negative clauses).
• After a negative clause for ‘but’ use: כִּי / כִּי אִם [Maybe in end of Ross?]
• אֲשֶׁר + perfect (relative clause).
• כִּי + perfect (causual clause)
• (temporal clause)
• וַיְהִי +אֲשֶׁר or כִּי etc.
• After he had visted ... etc.
• Sequence
• Verb - Subject - Indirect Object (dative) [one word?] - Direct Object (with direct object if name, has suffix, or definite object)
• Gave - the king - to him - the book
• If prep + suffix, or object marker + suffix
• Verb - Object - Subject
• Since it is considered a lighter word
• Except if DBR ELHYM (etc.) they start as they are, the object marker/suffix does not come before the Subject
• Jussive is in clause-initial position

• Don’t muddle up שָׁכַן with שָׁכַב
• כִּי אִם but, except
• Watch out from מִן־ comparison
• Don’t muddle אוֹתָךְ obj. with sign